## The Project Gutenberg eBook of Occupations of the Negroes

This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.

Title: Occupations of the Negroes

Author: Henry Gannett

Release date: October 16, 2020 [eBook #63468]
Most recently updated: October 18, 2024

Language: English

Credits: Produced by Richard Tonsing, hekula03, and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This
book was produced from images made available by the
HathiTrust Digital Library.)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OCCUPATIONS OF THE NEGROES ***

Transcriber’s Note:

The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.

THE TRUSTEES OF THE JOHN F. SLATER FUND
Occasional Papers, No. 6

# OCCUPATIONS OF THE NEGROES

BY
HENRY GANNETT,
of the United States Geological Survey
BALTIMORE
PUBLISHED BY THE TRUSTEES
1895

## MEMBERS OF THE BOARD.

Appointed.
1882. | Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio. | [1]1893.
1882. | Morrison R. Waite, of the District of Columbia. | [1]1888.
1882. | William E. Dodge, of New York. | [1]1883.
1882. | Phillips Brooks, of Massachusetts. | [2]1889.
1882. | Daniel C. Gilman, of Maryland. |
1882. | John A. Stewart, of New York. |
1882. | Alfred H. Colquitt, of Georgia. | [1]1894.
1882. | Morris K. Jesup, of New York. |
1882. | James P. Boyce, of Kentucky. | [1]1888.
1882. | William A. Slater, of Connecticut. |
Elected.
1883. | William E. Dodge, Jr., of New York. |
1888. | Melville W. Fuller, of the District of Columbia. |
1889. | John A. Broadus, of Kentucky. | [1]1895.
1889. | Henry C. Potter, of New York. |
1891. | J. L. M. Curry, of the District of Columbia. |
1894. | William J. Northen, of Georgia. |
1894. | Ellison Capers, of South Carolina. | [2]1895.
1894. | C. B. Galloway, of Mississippi. |
1895. | Alexander E. Orr, of New York. |

1. Died in office.

2. Resigned.

From 1882 to 1891, the General Agent of the Trust was Rev. A. G. Haygood, D. D., of Georgia, who resigned the office when he became a Bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. Since 1891, the duties of a General Agent have been discharged by Dr. J. L. M. Curry, of Washington, D. C., Chairman of the Educational Committee.

## ANNOUNCEMENT.

The Trustees of the John F. Slater Fund propose to publish from time to time papers that relate to the education of the colored race. These papers are designed to furnish information to those who are concerned in the administration of schools, and also to those who by their official stations are called upon to act or to advise in respect to the care of such institutions.

The Trustees believe that the experimental period in the education of the blacks is drawing to a close. Certain principles that were doubted thirty years ago now appear to be generally recognized as sound. In the next thirty years better systems will undoubtedly prevail, and the aid of the separate States is likely to be more and more freely bestowed. There will also be abundant room for continued generosity on the part of individuals and associations. It is to encourage and assist the workers and the thinkers that these papers will be published.

Each paper, excepting the first number (made up chiefly of official documents), will be the utterance of the writer whose name is attached to it, the Trustees disclaiming in advance all responsibility for the statement of facts and opinions.

5

## OCCUPATIONS OF THE NEGROES.

The statistics of occupations used in this paper are from the Census of 1890, and represent the status of the race on June 1 of that year. The Census takes cognizance only of “gainful” occupations, excluding from its lists housewives, school children, men of leisure, etc. Its schedules deal only with wage-earners, those directly engaged in earning their living.

### General Statistics.

In 1890, out of a total population of 62,622,250, 22,753,884 persons, or 34.6 per cent., were engaged in gainful occupations. Of the negroes, including all of mixed negro blood, numbering 7,470,040, 3,073,123, or 41.1 per cent., were engaged in gainful occupations. The proportion was much greater than with the total population. This total population, however, was composed of several diverse elements, including, besides the negroes themselves, the foreign born (of which a large proportion were adult males), and the native whites. The following table presents the proportions of each of these elements which were engaged in gainful occupations:

Proportion. | Per Cent.
--- | ---
Total population | 34.6
Whites | 35.5
Native whites | 31.6
Foreign born | 55.2
Negroes | 41.1

6The diagram No. 1 sets forth these figures in graphic form. The total area of the square represents the population. This is sub-divided by horizontal lines into rectangles representing the various elements of the population, and the shaded part of each rectangle represents the proportions engaged in gainful occupations.

The proportion was greatest among the foreign born because of the large proportion of adults, and particularly of males, among this element. Next to that, the proportion was greatest among the negroes, being much greater than among the whites collectively and still greater than among the native whites.

Classifying the wage-earners of the country in respect to race and nativity, it appears that 64.5 per cent. were native whites, 22 per cent. were of foreign birth, and 13.5 per cent. were negroes.

Analyzing the statistics of occupation by sex, it is discovered that the proportion of native white males who had occupations was 53.4 and of females 9.4 per cent. The corresponding proportion of male negroes was 56.3 per cent. and of female negroes 26.0 per cent. The male negroes were slightly more fully occupied than were the native whites, while among females the proportion of wage-earners was much greater. The difference between native whites and negroes in the proportion of wage-earners was, therefore, due mainly to the fuller occupation of women. To put it in another form: Out of every hundred native whites who pursued gainful occupations, 85 were males and 15 were females. Of every hundred negroes, 69 were males and 31 were females. Indeed, a larger proportion of women pursued gainful occupations among negroes than in any other class of the population.

### Classification of Occupations.

The primary classification of occupations made by the Census recognized five great groups, as follows: 1. Professions; 2. Agriculture; 3. Trade and transportation; 4. Manufactures; 5. Personal Service. These titles are self-explanatory, with the possible exception of the last class, which is mainly composed of domestic servants.

Proportion of the Population and its elements, which were engaged in gainful occupations in 1890.
Diagram No. 1.

Classification of the Wage-earners by Race and Nativity and by Occupations.
Diagram No. 2.

7The following table shows the proportion of the negro wage-earners engaged in each of these groups of occupations. In juxtaposition, for comparison, are placed similar figures for the native whites and the foreign born.

| Native White. | Foreign Born. | Negro.
--- | --- | --- | ---
| Per Cent. | Per Cent. | Per Cent.
Professions | 5.5 | 2.2 | 1.1
Agriculture | 41.0 | 25.5 | 57.2
Trade and transportation | 17.0 | 14.0 | 4.7
Manufactures | 22.9 | 31.3 | 5.6
Personal service | 13.6 | 27.0 | 31.4
| 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0

Similar facts are shown by diagram No. 2. In this the total area of the square represents the number of persons in the country pursuing gainful occupations. This is divided into rectangles by horizontal lines, the rectangles being proportioned respectively to the numbers of the native whites, the foreign born, and the negroes. The sub-division of these rectangles by vertical lines indicates the proportion in each group of wage-earners.

The most striking facts brought out by this table and diagram are that only a trifling proportion of the negroes were in the professions, that much more than one-half were farmers, and nearly one-third were engaged in personal (mainly domestic) service. Indeed, over seven-eighths of them were either farmers or servants. The proportions engaged in trade and transportation and in manufactures were very small. In respect to the farming class, they contrasted sharply with the foreign born. In trade and transportation and in manufactures the contrast was even greater, in the contrary direction. The foreign born contained a much larger proportion of professional men.

Comparing the negroes with the native whites, equally interesting contrasts appear. Professional men were much 8more numerous among whites than among negroes. The proportion of the farming class, although much smaller, was nearer that of the negroes than was the same class among the foreign born. In trade and transportation and in manufactures the native whites had much greater proportions, while in personal service the proportion was much less than that of the negroes.

### Male and Female Wage-Earners.

It will be interesting to analyze these figures further. The following table classifies negro wage-earners by occupation and by sex, giving for each sex the percentage engaged in each group of occupations:

| Male. | Female.
--- | --- | ---
Professions | 1.2 | 0.9
Agriculture | 63.4 | 44.0
Trade and transportation | 6.8 | 0.2
Manufactures | 7.0 | 2.8
Personal service | 21.6 | 52.1

These figures are also illustrated by diagram No. 3, the area of which represents all negro wage-earners. The two rectangles into which it is divided represent the males and females; each of these is sub-divided into rectangles representing the number in each group of occupations. Of the male negro wage-earners, more than three-fifths were farmers and a little less than one-fourth were servants. The two classes jointly accounted for nearly 85 per cent. of all.

Of the females, considerably less than one-half were farmers and more than one-half were servants—the two classes together accounting for 95 per cent. of all. This large proportion of female negro farmers was doubtless made up in the main of women and female children employed in the cotton fields.

### Number of Wage-Earners.

The following table, abstracted from the Census publications, shows the number of negroes in all occupations and in each of the five great groups of occupations by sex and by states and territories:

Classification of Negro Wage-earners by Sex and Occupation.
Diagram No. 3.

9

Negroes.
| All Occupations. | Agriculture, Fisheries, and Mining. | Professional Service. | Domestic and Personal Service. | Trade and Transportation. | Manufacturing and Mechanical Industries.
--- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | ---
Males. | Females. | Males. | Females. | Males. | Females. | Males. | Females. | Males. | Females. | Males. | Females.
The United States. | 2,101,233 | 971,890 | 1,329,584 | 427,835 | 25,171 | 8,829 | 457,002 | 505,898 | 143,350 | 2,399 | 146,126 | 26,929
1. | Alabama | 192,322 | 101,085 | 146,361 | 66,123 | 1,471 | 491 | 25,426 | 33,380 | 9,147 | 140 | 9,917 | 951
2. | Alaska |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
3. | Arizona | 1,091 | 71 | 29 |  | 3 |  | 1,034 | 67 | 13 |  | 12 | 4
4. | Arkansas | 86,861 | 30,115 | 68,219 | 19,069 | 1,226 | 238 | 11,226 | 10,506 | 2,787 | 27 | 3,403 | 275
5. | California | 4,301 | 1,041 | 1,084 | 14 | 86 | 21 | 2,316 | 897 | 457 | 3 | 358 | 106
6. | Colorado | 2,765 | 792 | 180 | 4 | 75 | 13 | 1,702 | 715 | 406 | 5 | 402 | 55
7. | Connecticut | 4,064 | 1,964 | 879 | 1 | 61 | 10 | 1,925 | 1,781 | 634 | 7 | 565 | 165
8. | Delaware | 9,334 | 3,016 | 4,157 | 34 | 97 | 32 | 3,631 | 2,878 | 633 | 21 | 816 | 51
9. | Dist. of Columbia | 21,238 | 18,770 | 553 | 16 | 390 | 335 | 12,680 | 16,734 | 4,776 | 195 | 2,839 | 1,490
10. | Florida | 46,302 | 19,071 | 23,690 | 7,629 | 776 | 223 | 13,229 | 10,421 | 4,106 | 52 | 4,501 | 746
11. | Georgia | 246,913 | 122,352 | 172,496 | 54,073 | 2,122 | 958 | 39,294 | 65,025 | 16,397 | 372 | 16,604 | 1,924
12. | Idaho | 83 | 23 | 16 | 1 |  |  | 57 | 21 | 8 |  | 2 | 1
13. | Illinois | 19,270 | 4,713 | 4,323 | 134 | 486 | 116 | 10,865 | 4,061 | 1,994 | 41 | 1,602 | 361
14. | Indiana | 14,648 | 4,210 | 3,273 | 37 | 330 | 126 | 7,950 | 3,849 | 1,426 | 23 | 1,669 | 175
15. | Iowa | 3,615 | 730 | 973 | 11 | 78 | 11 | 1,966 | 672 | 289 | 1 | 309 | 35
16. | Kansas | 13,889 | 3,400 | 4,171 | 110 | 357 | 69 | 6,898 | 3,077 | 1,148 | 20 | 1,315 | 124
17. | Kentucky | 76,411 | 31,255 | 38,456 | 1,013 | 1,406 | 420 | 22,649 | 28,916 | 7,381 | 66 | 6,519 | 840
18. | Louisiana | 159,180 | 83,978 | 111,820 | 49,428 | 1,251 | 355 | 31,609 | 31,292 | 6,045 | 129 | 8,455 | 2,774
19. | Maine | 409 | 145 | 104 | 2 | 8 | 2 | 174 | 128 | 68 | 2 | 55 | 11
20. | Maryland | 63,166 | 32,642 | 29,516 | 743 | 640 | 275 | 21,014 | 30,406 | 7,538 | 144 | 4,458 | 1,074
21. | Massachusetts | 7,593 | 3,435 | 601 | 4 | 162 | 57 | 4,296 | 2,914 | 1,402 | 34 | 1,132 | 426
22. | Michigan | 5,065 | 1,329 | 1,458 | 45 | 115 | 39 | 2,495 | 1,102 | 448 | 6 | 549 | 137
23. | Minnesota | 1,719 | 383 | 72 | 2 | 57 | 13 | 1,286 | 315 | 216 | 5 | 88 | 48
24. | Mississippi | 198,531 | 105,306 | 167,995 | 77,925 | 1,970 | 775 | 17,209 | 25,729 | 5,671 | 74 | 5,686 | 803
25. | Missouri | 43,940 | 16,715 | 15,757 | 324 | 897 | 337 | 18,899 | 15,614 | 4,862 | 44 | 3,525 | 396
1026. | Montana | 971 | 140 | 41 |  | 25 | 4 | 815 | 122 | 45 | 1 | 45 | 13
27. | Nebraska | 3,741 | 959 | 242 | 3 | 63 | 7 | 2,743 | 881 | 323 | 4 | 370 | 64
28. | Nevada | 130 | 22 | 41 | 1 |  |  | 67 | 18 | 17 | 1 | 5 | 2
29. | New Hampshire | 242 | 107 | 60 |  | 5 |  | 81 | 84 | 24 |  | 72 | 23
30. | New Jersey | 16,143 | 7,738 | 4,166 | 29 | 287 | 82 | 7,715 | 7,339 | 2,111 | 25 | 1,864 | 263
31. | New Mexico | 888 | 156 | 163 | 3 | 10 |  | 651 | 150 | 40 |  | 24 | 3
32. | New York | 23,272 | 13,664 | 3,031 | 25 | 571 | 135 | 13,151 | 12,445 | 4,231 | 54 | 2,288 | 1,005
33. | North Carolina | 148,370 | 68,220 | 106,493 | 33,796 | 1,619 | 565 | 20,580 | 31,393 | 7,564 | 106 | 12,114 | 2,360
34. | North Dakota | 146 | 23 | 35 |  | 7 |  | 90 | 22 | 10 |  | 4 | 1
35. | Ohio | 28,085 | 7,791 | 6,201 | 108 | 617 | 246 | 14,814 | 6,955 | 3,027 | 40 | 3,426 | 442
36. | Oklahoma | 958 | 125 | 635 | 17 | 22 | 3 | 231 | 102 | 28 | 1 | 42 | 2
37. | Oregon | 536 | 99 | 106 | 2 | 23 | 5 | 328 | 81 | 42 | 1 | 37 | 10
38. | Pennsylvania | 37,534 | 15,704 | 4,602 | 29 | 584 | 197 | 22,505 | 14,297 | 5,213 | 104 | 4,630 | 1,077
39. | Rhode Island | 2,337 | 1,362 | 270 | 2 | 38 | 18 | 1,161 | 1,169 | 546 | 3 | 322 | 170
40. | South Carolina | 186,714 | 102,836 | 149,915 | 73,588 | 1,543 | 506 | 18,554 | 26,213 | 6,860 | 188 | 9,842 | 2,341
41. | South Dakota | 284 | 43 | 33 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 115 | 35 | 121 | 1 | 14 | 4
42. | Tennessee | 121,016 | 44,701 | 72,316 | 12,510 | 1,736 | 592 | 25,606 | 30,333 | 10,954 | 125 | 10,404 | 1,141
43. | Texas | 123,395 | 46,691 | 85,824 | 20,758 | 2,031 | 563 | 23,360 | 24,840 | 6,386 | 69 | 5,794 | 461
44. | Utah | 298 | 51 | 21 |  | 1 |  | 248 | 48 | 14 | 1 | 14 | 2
45. | Vermont | 322 | 109 | 112 | 1 | 3 |  | 143 | 102 | 33 |  | 31 | 6
46. | Virginia | 169,343 | 71,752 | 93,745 | 10,164 | 1,654 | 911 | 39,425 | 55,941 | 15,655 | 253 | 18,864 | 4,483
47. | Washington | 902 | 153 | 250 | 2 | 16 | 2 | 480 | 134 | 69 |  | 87 | 15
48. | West Virginia | 11,478 | 2,623 | 4,790 | 50 | 166 | 63 | 3,515 | 2,462 | 2,080 | 7 | 927 | 41
49. | Wisconsin | 855 | 205 | 168 | 4 | 27 | 11 | 481 | 161 | 74 | 1 | 105 | 28
50. | Wyoming | 563 | 75 | 141 |  | 58 | 1 | 313 | 71 | 31 | 3 | 20 |

Proportion of Negro Wage-earners to Negro Population.
Diagram No. 4.

Grouping of the States and Territories.
Diagram No. 5.

Proportions of Male and Female Wage-earners.
Diagram No. 6.

11

### Proportion of Wage-Earners to Population.

The foregoing diagram No. 4 shows by the length of the bars the proportion which the negro wage-earners bore in 1890 to the negro population of each state. This proportion was greatest in the states and the territories of the west. Following these are the northeastern states, while the lower part of the column is made up of the states in the upper Mississippi valley and those of the south.

### Occupations by Groups of States.

The distribution of wage-earners among the five occupation groups differed widely in different parts of the country. To study it, it will be sufficient to group the states and analyze the statistics of each group.

The groups which will be used here are those which have been in use in the last two censuses—namely, the northeastern and southeastern, north central and south central, and western groups. The states and territories of which each group is composed are shown in map No. 5.

Examination of the states forming the above groups will show that the groups are in many respects very characteristic. The southeastern and south central groups contain nine-tenths of the negroes of the country. These states may be said to constitute the home of the negro, while in the northern and western states he is an immigrant.

### Occupations by Sex and State Groups.

Diagram No. 6 shows the distribution by sex and by groups of states of the negro wage-earners. It appears that in the northeastern, southeastern, and south central groups two-thirds of the wage-earners were males and one-third were females, while in the north central and western groups about five-sixths were males and one-sixth only were females. This is in part due to the disproportionate number of males in these parts of the country.

12Diagram No. 7 shows the distribution of the negro wage-earners, classified by sex, among the five occupation groups and by groups of states. The length of each bar represents 100 per cent., and each bar is divided proportionately among the different occupation groups. Thus from it we read that in the northeastern states 15 per cent. of the male wage-earners were engaged in agriculture, 56 per cent. in personal service, 16 per cent. in trade and transportation, 12 per cent. in manufactures, and 2 per cent. in the professions.

It is seen that a far larger proportion of male wage-earners were engaged in agriculture in the southern states than in the northern and western states, the proportion in the two groups of the former states being 64 and 71 per cent., while in the northeastern states only 15 per cent. were engaged in agriculture, in the north central states 26 per cent., and in the western states 17 per cent.

In trade and transportation the highest proportion was found in the northeastern states, where it was 16 per cent.; in the north central states it was 14 and in the western states 10 per cent., while in the southeastern states it was 7 per cent. and in the south central states 7 per cent.

Of course, the magnitude of the proportion in the northeastern states is due to the fact that this is the commercial and manufacturing section of the country, where a large proportion of all the population is engaged in these avocations. The same is the case, though in less degree, in the north central states, while the southern states are almost purely agricultural. The figures relating to manufacturing occupations show similar characteristics. It will be noted that in the northern and western states the occupations of the negroes were more diversified than in the southern states. Agriculture and personal service in the northeastern states occupied but 71 per cent. of all wage-earners, in the north central states they occupied 75 per cent., and in the western states 81 per cent., while in the southeastern states these two occupation groups comprised 84 per cent. and in the south central 88 per cent. of all.

Distribution of Occupations by Sex and Sections of the Country.
Diagram No. 7.

Proportions of Males and Females among the Negro Wage-earners.
Diagram No. 8.

13The diagram shows in a similar manner the distribution of the female negro wage-earners. There were engaged in agriculture in the northern and western states but a trifling proportion of negro women, while in the southern states as a whole nearly one-half of the female negro wage-earners were engaged in that avocation. On the other hand, personal service occupied fully nine-tenths of the female wage-earners in the northern and western states, while in the southern states less than one-half were engaged in it. Indeed, 94 per cent. of the female wage-earners of the west were engaged in personal service, 91 per cent. in the northeastern states, and 87 per cent. in the north central states. In trade and transportation the proportion was trifling, and in manufactures it was small, although much larger in the north and west than in the south.

Here, also, we see that agriculture and personal service occupied nearly all wage-earners—91 per cent. in the northeastern states, 96 per cent. in the southeastern states, 89 per cent. in the north central states, 97 per cent. in the south central states, and 95 per cent. in the western states. Occupations were slightly more diversified in the north and west than in the southern states, as was the case with the males.

### Occupations by States.

It will now be of interest to extend this study in detail by states, but, in doing so, the study will be confined to the southern, the former slave states, which are, in a sense, the home of the negro, and in which more than nine-tenths of them live. In most of the northern states the number of negroes is so small that any conclusions drawn from statistics regarding them are worthless and are likely to be misleading.

Diagram No. 8 shows the distribution by sex of the negro wage-earners of these southern states. The total length of the bar represents in each case all the wage-earners, the white portion representing the males and the shaded portion the females.

14This diagram shows that the greatest proportion of female wage-earners is in the District of Columbia, where it is nearly one-half of all negro wage-earners, and the least in West Virginia, where it is less than one-fifth of all. In most of the cotton states it ranges from one-fourth to one-third of all negro wage-earners.

Diagrams Nos. 9 and 10 present the proportion of male and of female negro wage-earners who are engaged in agriculture, personal service, and other occupations in the southern states.

The first of these diagrams, representing male wage-earners, shows that agriculture and personal service accounted for from 63 to 94 per cent. of all male wage-earners. Indeed, excluding the District of Columbia from consideration, from 73 to 93 per cent. were accounted for by these two occupations.

Again excluding the District of Columbia, which is not a farming community, the male wage-earners who were farmers constituted in the different states proportions varying from 36 per cent. in Missouri to 85 per cent. in Mississippi. The proportion of farmers was highest in the cotton states and decidedly less in the border states. On the other hand, the proportion of males engaged in personal service was least in the cotton states and increased decidedly in those further north.

The second diagram, illustrating the occupations of female wage-earners, has certain features in common with that relating to males, but these features are more accented. In the cotton states a large proportion of the female wage-earners worked in the fields, and was therefore reported as engaged in agriculture, while in the border states but a small proportion was found there. On the other hand, domestic service claimed nearly all female wage-earners in the border states, but in the cotton states a relatively small proportion.

Both the diagrams, and especially the first, show an important feature. In the cotton states wage-earners were almost entirely either farmers or those engaged in personal service, but in the states farther north these classes were relatively smaller and occupations were somewhat more varied.

Proportions of Male Negro Wage-earners engaged in Agriculture, Personal Service and other occupations.
Diagram No. 9.

Proportions of Female Negro Wage-earners engaged in Personal Service, Agriculture, and other Occupations.
Diagram No. 10.

15

### Ownership of Farms and Homes.

The statistics of farm and home ownership and of mortgage indebtedness of the Eleventh Census throw some light upon the pecuniary condition of the negro race.

The total number of farms and homes in the country in 1890 was 12,690,152, of which the negroes occupied 1,410,769, or 11.1 per cent. The proportion of negroes to the total population was at that time 12.20 per cent., showing a deficiency in the proportion occupying homes and farms when compared with the population.

The number of farms in the country was 4,767,179. Of these, 549,642, or 11.5 per cent., were occupied by negroes, being a proportion greater than that of farms and homes combined.

The number of homes, as distinguished from farms, in the country was 7,922,973, of which 861,137, or 10.9 per cent., were occupied by negroes, being a proportion less than that of farms and homes combined.

Of the 549,632 farms in the country occupied by negroes, 120,738, or 22.0 per cent., were owned by their occupants. The corresponding proportion for whites was 71.7 per cent. Of course, as regards tenants, the reverse was the case, the proportions being for whites 28.3 per cent, and for negroes 78.0 per cent. More than three-fourths of the farms occupied by negroes were rented; in other words, more than three-fourths of the negro farmers were tenants, while less than one-fourth of the white farmers were tenants.

Of the farms owned by the negroes, 90.4 per cent. were without incumbrance. Of those owned by whites, 71.3 were without incumbrance, showing a much larger proportion encumbered than among those owned by negroes.

Of 861,137 homes occupied by negroes in 1890, 143,550 were owned by their occupants and 717,587 were rented, the proportions being 19.0 per cent. and 81.0 per cent. Corresponding proportions for whites were 39.4 per cent. and 60.6 per cent. Of the houses owned by negro occupants, 126,264, or 87.7 per cent., were free and 12.3 encumbered. Corresponding 16figures for whites were 71.3 and 28.7 per cent., showing, as before, a much greater proportion of free holdings among negroes than among whites.

Diagrams Nos. 11 and 12 summarize the above facts in graphic form. The total areas of the squares represent the number of farms and homes respectively, those occupied by whites and negroes respectively being represented by the rectangles into which the squares are divided by horizontal lines. The vertical lines sub-divide these rectangles into others proportional to the numbers occupied by owners without and with incumbrance, and by renters.

The male negroes occupied in agriculture numbered, in 1890, 1,329,584. Of these, 510,619 occupied farms, the remainder, 818,965, being presumably farm laborers. The negro farmers, i. e., occupants of farms, constituted 38.3 per cent. of the male negroes engaged in agriculture, leaving 61.7 per cent. of the number as laborers. The corresponding figures for whites were 60.4 per cent. and 39.6 per cent. The proportion of negroes engaged in agriculture who were farmers—i. e., occupied farms—was, therefore, much smaller than that of the whites. In spite of this low comparative showing, however, it must be agreed that, considering all the attendant circumstances, the proportion of negro farm occupants—more than one-third of all negroes engaged in agriculture—is unexpectedly large.

Summing up the salient points in this paper, it is seen that in the matter of occupations the negro is mainly engaged either in agriculture or personal service. He has, in a generation, made little progress in manufactures, transportation, or trade. In these two groups of occupations, males are in greater proportion engaged in agriculture and females in domestic service. They have, however, during this generation, made good progress toward acquiring property, especially in the form of homes and farms, and, in just so far as they have acquired possession of real estate, it is safe to say that they have become more valuable as citizens. The outlook for them is very favorable as agriculturists, but there is little prospect that the race will become an important factor in manufactures, transportation, or commerce.

FARMS.
Diagram No. 11.

HOMES.
Diagram No. 12.

17 JOHN MURPHY & CO., PRINTERS,
BALTIMORE.

TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES

1. Silently corrected typographical errors and variations in spelling.

*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OCCUPATIONS OF THE NEGROES ***
Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will be renamed.
Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™ concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away—you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.
START: FULL LICENSE

## THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE

PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK
To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work (or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at www.gutenberg.org/license.
Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™ electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property (trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.
1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic works even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the United States and you are located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg™ works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg™ name associated with the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when you share it without charge with others.
1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any country other than the United States.
1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:
1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must appear prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™ work (any work on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, copied or distributed:

> This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.

1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg™ trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.
1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg™ License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg™.
1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project Gutenberg™ License.
1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work in a format other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website (www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.
1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.
1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works provided that:

- • You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the method you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, but he has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in Section 4, “Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.”
- • You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™ License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg™ works.
- • You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of receipt of the work.
- • You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.
1.F.
1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment.
1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the “Right of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.
1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further opportunities to fix the problem.
1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.
1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any Defect you cause.
Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg™
Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from people in all walks of life.
Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org.
Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit 501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.
The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact
Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations ($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt status with the IRS.
The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.
While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who approach us with offers to donate.
International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.
Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.
Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.
Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.
Most people start at our website which has the main PG search facility: www.gutenberg.org.
This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™, including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.